https://repository.maseno.ac.ke/handle/123456789/678 Fri, 15 May 2026 13:14:33 GMT 2026-05-15T13:14:33Z https://repository.maseno.ac.ke/handle/123456789/5926 A history of vigilantism and the insecurity situation in Kisumu City since 1986 OMONDI, Bernard Ouma Urban security remains a perennial problem globally. Kenya in particular has faced the challenge of inadequate security in its towns. Quite often, neighborhood groups have emerged to take advantage of these security lapses through vigilantism. Ordinarily, vigilante activities border on criminality despite the acceptability they sometimes enjoy from the locals they purport to protect. The Government of Kenya enacted the Prevention of Organized Crime Act of 2010 and 2012 that proscribes vigilante groups. The prohibition, however, has not deterred these groups. Consequently, Kisumu City has over the years witnessed high levels of insecurity occasioned by the emergence and entrenchment of vigilante groups. According to Crime Statistics Economic Survey report of 2015, the City has continued to experience heightened insecurity instigated by vigilante groups. This study, therefore, purposed to investigate the activities of vigilante groups since 1986 and to elucidate how these groups have affected security in Kisumu City. Specifically, the study sought to: establish the historical background of vigilantism in Kisumu City since 1986; describe the activities of the vigilante groups in Kisumu City; and to explain the inter-connections between state and non-state actors in providing security in Kisumu. The study adopted Bjorn Moller’s (2003) interpretation and perspective on Conflict Theory, by which he asserts that conflict occurs at various levels based on social, economic and political structures in a society. The major tenets of the theory are marginalization, poverty, and inequality. The study made use of historical descriptive design to investigate and analyze the phenomenon under study. Purposive and snowballing sampling techniques were used to identify Key Informants for the study. The study area was Kisumu City, with a total population of 285,412. The target population was 55 respondents. Primary data was collected through Key Informant Interview Guide (11), In-Depth-Interview Guide (11) and Focus Group Discussion (33). Secondary data was collected from library research and archival reports. Data analysis involved both document and content analysis. The findings revealed that vigilante groups in Kisumu City specifically the Baghdad Boys emerged in 1986 as a result of state security failure, unemployment, ethnic animosity, economic hardships and political marginalization. Consequently, the period in the late 1980s, leading to the repeal of section 2A of the Kenyan constitution in order to allow multipartism explains the resurgence of vigilante groups and vigilantism in Kisumu. Particularly, this study deduced that KANU’s struggle to retain power and its several years of establishing a repressive system of governance left Kisumu politicians with no option but to co-opt vigilante groups into their political mobilization and other activities as they faced state sponsored violence and police brutality in what was publicly considered as a melting pot for opposition politics. The study further established that vigilante groups evolved from neighborhood groups to political movements and, eventually, to criminal gangs. It ascertained that vigilante groups in Kisumu City depicted organized recruitment procedures and hierarchical structures, and engaged in various political, social and economic activities. In retrospect, this study pointed to a symbiotic relationship between the police and vigilante groups, confirming the general public perception by majority of Kisumu residents that vigilante groups thrived and continued to perpetuate their criminal activities by conspiring with a number of rogue police officers of all ranks. The study concluded that failure by State agencies to address security concerns and the socio-economic needs of City residents contributed to the formation and development of vigilante groups. The study recommended police reforms and an integrated approach to security in Kisumu City. It also advocated for the enactment of legislations to curb insecurity in Kisumu City and other urban areas as a way of minimizing or completely eliminating vigilantism that continues to endanger the security of citizens and leads to repression of democratic idreals within the locality. A reflection on the findings and analysis from this study signals to an enrichment of knowledge that is available on urban security from the angle of the emergence and growth of vigilantism and the intricacies of urban (in) security as a key governance issue. Master's Thesis Sun, 01 Jan 2023 00:00:00 GMT https://repository.maseno.ac.ke/handle/123456789/5926 2023-01-01T00:00:00Z https://repository.maseno.ac.ke/handle/123456789/5897 Conservation and preservation of immovable archaeological heritage at Gede ruins and Shimoni historic site along the Kenyan coast MAHAGWA, Benard Busaka The management of immovable archaeological heritage at Shimoni historic site and Gede ruins along the Kenyan coast were the focus of the study. Achieving the cultural, scientific, economic, and historical values of immovable archaeological heritage requires the use of efficient conservation and preservation management techniques. The acceptance and implementation of current international treaties to ensure the validity and originality of these heritages and to extract the values from them is critical based on imminent threats, whether natural or human induced. Therefore, effective management that involves conservation and preservation takes the centre stage. In retrospect, to slow down the process of heritage degradation and decay, management strategies, national and local government commitment, local community knowledge, and sustainable utilization are crucial. However, the process of actualizing the goal of conservation and preservation is facing myriad challenges and threats that continue to devalue the immovable heritage, warranting steadfast intervention. Hence, this study investigated and evaluated the process of setting up laws, regulations, and statutes, putting them into practice and applying them to mitigate threats to immovable archaeological heritage, specifically those along the Kenyan coast. The presumption was that the country's archaeological heritage must be skillfully handled because it is integral to its cultural history. The three research objectives were to: establish the status and level of various uses of the immovable archaeological heritage at Gede and Shimoni sites; assess the level of compliance of the current management models at Shimoni and Gede for their conservation and preservation with the set International Conventions, State laws and Statutes; and to examine mitigation measures against the threats facing the immovable heritage at Gede and Shimoni historical site for their sustainable utilization. By applying a SWOT analysis model and McGregor’s motivational theories X and Y, which were both developed in the 1950s and have remained relevant to date, the researcher sought to understand the current status of the two sites and account for how they are managed through the National Museums of Kenya (NMK) and the Community Based Organization respectively. The two sites were sampled purposively based on the models applied in their everyday management as juxtaposed on sustainable utilization. Interpretative research design and the phenomenological approach was applied while carrying out this study. Through in-depth interviews with key informants, on-site situational analysis, direct observation, qualitative data was collected. The data was analyzed thematically and organized into categories, patterns, themes and sub-themes in line with specific objectives. Corroboration of primary and secondary data was done alongside textual analysis to draw conclusions for the study and also to make recommendations. The study's situational analysis showed that immovable archaeological heritage along the coast has values which determine their utilization. Also, the immovable heritage is under threat from environmental and natural factors, human induced development and those resulting from heritage usage. As per the study findings, Kenya has had laws governing archaeological heritage management since 1927. Accordingly, the NMK was established in 1930 and has the sole mandate of managing all archaeological heritage in the country. Despite this institutional and legal foundations, threats to the heritage still abound. A great disconnect was found to exist between the international conventions and national laws as applied through NMK and the local communities’ claims over usage of the immovable heritage. Therefore, heritage management should take a holistic approach and involve the community around it more since people have a specific connection to heritage sites either individually or collectively. PhD Thesis Sun, 01 Jan 2023 00:00:00 GMT https://repository.maseno.ac.ke/handle/123456789/5897 2023-01-01T00:00:00Z https://repository.maseno.ac.ke/handle/123456789/5220 Shamba system of forest management and economic change in Kodera, Homabay county, 1957-2012 ODIENY, Arthur Oyugi Shamba system is a scientific management of forests whereby tree seedlings are planted together with food crops to help in tendering the seedlings for 3-5 years when the trees are considered mature. An avalanche of studies in forest history have laid emphasis on the evolution of forest policies, contests and negotiations that engulfed forests in the colonial period in Kenya. These studies concur that the shamba system is under-explored in Kenyan history. Besides that, studies in economic history have not appraised the shamba system as a phenomenon that instigated economic change. Notwithstanding the shamba system success in the colonial period, the policy witnessed success in some forests in Kenya in the post-colonial period but failed in Kodera forest that continued to face forest plundering. The government’s persistence in the application of the policy in the wake of a turbulent post -colonial forest history therefore justified an investigation of the effect of the shamba system on forest management. This study was based on the premise that the shamba system has been both historically and scientifically proven to be efficient in establishing forest plantations. The purpose of the study was to find out the forces behind forest plundering in Kodera in spite of the application of the shamba system. The objectives of the study were to: Account for the factors that led to the adoption and application of the shamba system in Kodera forest, (1957-2012), describe the economic aspects that changed following the application of the shamba system in Kodera forest and finally to examine the effect of the shamba system of forest management on Kodera forest .The study adopted a historical descriptive research design. It employed purposive and snowballing sampling techniques. The study area was Kodera forest whose total population people was 8261. The sampled population was 60 respondents. Primary data was collected through Key Informant Interview Guide (15), In-depth- Interview Guide (15) and Focus Group Discussion (30) while secondary data was collected through library research and also from archival reports. Articulation of modes of production theory as articulated by Ray (1977), Pee (1980) and Berman (1985) was adopted in the study. Content validity was ensured through evaluation and correction of research instruments. Reliability of data was done through reconnaissance. Data analysis involved both document and content analysis besides corroborating both secondary and primary data. Presentation of data was done in prose and tables. The study found out that era of disease and epidemic informed the adoption of the shamba system. Besides disease and epidemic, scientific ascendancy era in 1957 led to the adoption of the shamba system to diversify employment in forests. The study further revealed that the shamba system accentuated economic change in Kodera forest when new markets were established and new breeds of tree seedlings were exchanged for money. People migrated from various areas to work in the forest to earn a living. While the policy enhanced forest management and alleviated forest destruction through fires in the colonial period, in the post –colonial period, the policy failed to establish forest plantations due to corruption. The study concludes that the shamba system was still the best approach to forest establishment and communal participation in terms of their technical approach to forest conservation is critical. The study further concludes that plant transfers from the Metropole that was witnessed during the application of the shamba system was an imperial impulse that was geared towards relegating African plants in Kodera forest by adopting exotic species. The study recommended that participation of all stakeholders in forest management be enhanced in order to accommodate dissenting voices such as the community and civil society in pursuit of the core mission of the shamba system practices. The study is significant in demonstrating how forests can be best established and conserved through the shamba system approach to mitigate deforestation as a driver of climate change. Sat, 01 Jan 2022 00:00:00 GMT https://repository.maseno.ac.ke/handle/123456789/5220 2022-01-01T00:00:00Z https://repository.maseno.ac.ke/handle/123456789/958 The origin and development of Maseno urban center: 1895-2001 OSUGA, Elekia Ouma Urban centers were already in existence before the advent of colonialism in Africa. Such centers included Jenne-Jeno, Yoruba towns, Cairo, Meroe and Kilwa that could be found in different parts of the continent. Some of the factors that led to the establishment of these centers were war, transport, strategic placement, local and international trade, mining, agriculture as well as cultural developments, unlike Maseno urban centre which sprung up as a result of missionary factor with the arrival of the Europeans. The rise in the life style ultimately transformed the area in improving the infrastructure and consolidating the services at a central place. This changed the settlement from a rural like to an urban like area. It is from such developments, that towns emerged and even transformed into cities. Consequently, even though various studies from various disciplines have been carried on urbanization, concentrations have always been based on bigger towns and cities. There was lack of adequate studies on smaller towns from the hinterland particularly Maseno, and more so from the historical approach. Given that Maseno urban center exists coupled with the fact that the missionaries came in 1903, the problem is therefore based on how Maseno Urban Center evolved and developed within the Christian foundation in line with intra-trade as opposed to inter-trade in other smaller towns and it’s first establishment of a fully fledged University contrary to it’s contemporary urban centers that the study intends to explore. The development of this town involved the growth of institutions like Maseno School, Siriba Teachers College, Government Training Institute, Maseno University, Maseno Hospital, and Maseno Theological College that have contributed to the socio-economic and political development of this urban set up. The general objective of this study was to examine the origin and development of Maseno urban center. The specific objectives were to investigate the migratory patterns and settlement of communities that settled in Maseno since 1895; to examine the role of the policies of the government and the Church Missionary Society on the emergence of Maseno town; and finally to investigate the role of the institutions of learning and commerce on the growth of Maseno in terms of its expansion and settlement. The study employed the Central Place Theory of Walter Christaller who believed that a town acted as a focus of the surrounding countryside and it was from then that the general functions were derived. This made the town to function as a central place and having the central place functions as applied by Christaller. It was further emphasized that an economy required that certain goods and services which could not be provided anywhere should be made available at central places for the benefit of the population within the defined tributary areas. The study employed descriptive research design. The study used primary and secondary data where purposive sampling and snowballing were applied. The targeted groups were the educationists, the clergy, businessmen, Maseno High School alumni, politicians, the provincial administration, university lecturers and the local community. The above mentioned people named the others whom they knew until the number of cases required was obtained. Oral interviews using question guidelines were used for collecting data. The data was analyzed qualitatively through thematic and content analysis. Policy makers may find the study useful for planning purposes and it may also be relevant for future researchers on Urbanization. It may also expand the opportunities for quality basic education, maternal health, and environmental sustainability in line with the Millennium Development Goals to be met by 2015. The research concluded that the colonial land policies and township ordinances of 1903 and 1930, including the powers which were given to the Provincial Commissioner to upgrade urban centers and townships had a very big impact on the development and expansion of Maseno Township. Masters Thesis Tue, 01 Jan 2013 00:00:00 GMT https://repository.maseno.ac.ke/handle/123456789/958 2013-01-01T00:00:00Z https://repository.maseno.ac.ke/handle/123456789/679 A History of Cross-Border Resource Conflict Persistence Between the Pokot and Karamojong Since 1850 Ogalo, Adipo Jacob A majority of the people living in the arid and semi-arid parts of the world are pastoralists whose livelihoods are dictated by the upkeep and size of their herds. During the dry season, the harsh environmental condition forces them to migrate in search of pasture and water. With limited access to water and competing rights to pasture, inter-community conflicts often arise particularly when one community crosses over to others’ territory to share these valuable resources. This case has persisted between the Pokot and Karamojong despite the existence of formal and traditional conflict resolution mechanisms, security policies, disarmament programmes and structured ways of sharing resources across the border. The choice of this study area was based on the fact that all other communities along the same border enjoyed mutual and symbiotic relations. The purpose of this study was to find out why the conflict still persists. The objectives of this study were to: Account for the nature of the Pokot and Karamojong relations in the pre-colonial period; analyze the arrival of British colonialism and the creation of the Kenya-Uganda boundary in the Pokot and Karamojong conflict persistence; assess the causes and impacts of the conflict persistence on the two communities and finally examine the appropriate measures in the mitigation and prevention mechanisms of the conflict persistence. The study used historical descriptive research design. It employed purposive and snowballing sampling techniques. The study area was Kenya’s West Pokot County and Uganda’s Karamoja district whose total population is 1, 244, 142 people. The target population was 384 respondents. Primary data was collected using Key Informant Interview (18), In-depth Interviews (9), and Focus Group Discussions (37) while secondary data was collected from library research and reports. Conflict theory by Oberschall (1973) and Ubuntu African philosophy by Mbingi (1987) were adopted as the theories of the study. Data analysis involved document and content analysis as well as the corroboration and validation of the results from both secondary and primary data during collection and write up. This study found that the conflict is spasmodic, covert and a reprisal arising from adherence to traditional norms, climate change, and proliferation of arms and commercialization of cattle raids as its major causes. It has also revealed loss of property, human deaths, insecurity and under development as its impacts. It is recommended that insecurity can be eradicated if Kenya and Uganda governments work together in the sectors of education, health, livestock and infrastructural development. They should be more proactive than reactive to the impasse, involve warriors and women in their hybrid approach of conflict resolution, and consider buying Boeing quadracopter Scan Eagle for surveillance across the border. They should also use Certificate of Transhumance and a microcomputer chip with an electronic code number for each animal to help track rustlers within and across national borders. The study has concluded that both intrinsic and extrinsic factors are the major contributors to this conflict. The study is important in strengthening policies on peaceful coexistence, conflict resolution between neighboring communities, boundary survey and political administration. Sun, 01 Jan 2017 00:00:00 GMT https://repository.maseno.ac.ke/handle/123456789/679 2017-01-01T00:00:00Z